The Auto Toyo Optics MC 1:2.8 28mm is a celebrated wide-angle prime, designed for 35mm film SLR cameras during the 1970s and 80s.

Manufactured by Toyo Optics USA (TOU), this lens offers a 34.7-degree diagonal angle of view and a close focusing distance of 25cm.

Known for its solid construction and manual focus operation, it remains a popular choice for film photography enthusiasts today.

Historical Context: Toyo Optics USA

Toyo Optics USA (TOU) emerged as a significant player in the lens manufacturing landscape during the mid-20th century. While often overshadowed by larger Japanese brands, TOU carved a niche by producing high-quality lenses, frequently rebadged or supplied to other companies like Five Star.

The company focused on providing affordable alternatives, particularly appealing to enthusiasts seeking capable optics without the premium price tag. The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm exemplifies this approach, offering a robust and optically sound wide-angle solution for the popular 35mm film format during its golden age.

TOU’s legacy lies in its contribution to accessible photography.

The Rise of Wide-Angle Prime Lenses in the 1970s-80s

The 1970s and 80s witnessed a surge in the popularity of wide-angle prime lenses, driven by evolving photographic styles. Street photography and landscape work benefited immensely from the immersive perspectives these lenses offered. The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm entered this market, providing photographers with a compact and capable tool.

These primes encouraged deliberate composition and a more intimate connection with the subject. Unlike zoom lenses, they demanded a thoughtful approach. The 28mm focal length became a favorite for its versatility, balancing wide views with manageable distortion.

Technical Specifications

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm f/2.8 boasts a 28mm focal length, a maximum aperture of f/2.8, and a 34.7-degree viewing angle.

It features a 25cm minimum focus and robust, all-metal construction.

Focal Length and Aperture

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm lens centers around a classic 28mm focal length, making it ideal for a diverse range of photographic scenarios. This wide-angle perspective captures expansive scenes while maintaining manageable distortion.

Its maximum aperture of f/2.8 provides a good balance between light gathering capability and depth of field control.

This allows for shooting in lower light conditions and achieving pleasing background blur, enhancing subject isolation. The combination of focal length and aperture delivers versatile performance for both casual and serious photographers.

Lens Mount Compatibility: Konica AR and Pentax PK

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm was originally designed with compatibility for both Konica AR and Pentax PK camera systems. This dual mount capability broadened its appeal to photographers using either of these popular film SLR platforms.

Specifically, the lens functions seamlessly with all Konica AR mount cameras, offering a direct and reliable connection.

Similarly, it’s fully compatible with Pentax PK mount bodies, providing a robust and functional pairing for Pentax users.

Diagonal Angle of View: 34.7 Degrees

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm boasts a diagonal angle of view measuring 34.7 degrees. This wide-angle perspective is crucial for capturing expansive scenes and creating a sense of depth within photographs.

This angle is particularly well-suited for landscapes, architecture, and street photography, allowing photographers to include more of the environment in their compositions.

The 34.7-degree field of view offers a balance between width and natural perspective.

Minimum Focusing Distance: 25cm (Close Focus)

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm lens features a minimum focusing distance of 25cm, enabling close-up photography while still maintaining a wide-angle perspective. This capability expands creative possibilities beyond traditional landscape or architectural shots.

Photographers can utilize this close focus to emphasize foreground elements or create unique compositions with interesting perspectives.

The 25cm distance allows for detailed shots, adding versatility to this classic lens.

Build Quality and Design

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm boasts a solid metal construction, ensuring durability and a premium feel. Its design prioritizes robust build quality and manual operation.

Solid Metal Construction

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm distinguishes itself through its remarkably durable solid metal construction. This isn’t merely aesthetic; the all-metal build contributes significantly to the lens’s longevity and tactile experience.

Unlike many contemporary lenses utilizing plastic components, this lens feels substantial and well-engineered. This robust design not only withstands the rigors of use but also provides a reassuring sense of quality.

The metal barrel and focusing ring offer a smooth, precise operation, indicative of the craftsmanship employed during its production. This solid build is a key factor in its continued appeal to collectors and users alike.

Manual Focus Operation

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm features a purely manual focus operation, a characteristic common to lenses of its era. This necessitates direct, hands-on control over focusing, demanding a deliberate and engaged approach to photography.

Photographers utilizing this lens must rely on their skill and the camera’s focusing aids – typically a split-image or microprism collar – to achieve sharp results.

While lacking the convenience of autofocus, this manual system fosters a deeper connection between photographer and image, encouraging careful composition and precise focusing techniques.

Physical Dimensions and Weight

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm boasts a compact and manageable form factor, typical of lenses designed for 35mm film cameras. Its overall size is approximately 55mm in length.

Constructed with solid metal, the lens feels substantial in hand, contributing to its durable build quality. While specific weight figures vary slightly, it generally weighs around 200-250 grams.

This relatively lightweight design makes it a comfortable companion for extended shooting sessions, whether on a street photography walk or a landscape expedition.

Optical Performance

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm delivers sharp images with good resolution, benefiting from its multi-coated (MC) optics.

Users report satisfactory performance, though chromatic aberration and vignetting are present, typical for lenses of this era.

Multi-Coated (MC) Optics

The “MC” designation in the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm signifies the presence of multi-coating on the lens elements. This crucial feature reduces internal reflections, significantly enhancing light transmission and contrast.

Multi-coating minimizes flare and ghosting, resulting in clearer, more vibrant images, particularly in challenging lighting conditions.

While not as advanced as modern coatings, the multi-layer coating on this lens was a notable improvement for its time, contributing to its overall optical quality and image sharpness.

It helped to deliver pleasing results on both color and black and white film.

Image Sharpness and Resolution

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm generally delivers good sharpness across the frame, especially when stopped down to f/5.6 or f/8. Center sharpness is notably strong, providing detailed images.

Resolution is considered quite respectable for a lens of its era, capable of resolving fine details on high-quality film.

Photographers often praise its “strong construct satisfactory” performance, noting that it produces pleasingly sharp images with good clarity, even wide open at f/2.8.

Edge sharpness can be slightly softer.

Chromatic Aberration and Distortion

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm exhibits relatively well-controlled chromatic aberration for a lens of its age, meaning color fringing is generally minimal, even in high-contrast scenes.

Distortion is present, as expected with a wide-angle lens, but it’s mostly of the barrel distortion variety – lines bowing outwards.

This distortion is typically not severe and can be easily corrected in post-processing if desired.

Overall, these optical aberrations are manageable and don’t significantly detract from image quality.

Vignetting Characteristics

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm displays noticeable vignetting, particularly at its widest aperture of f/2.8. This manifests as darkened corners in images, a common trait for lenses of this focal length and era.

Stopping down the aperture to f/4 or f/5.6 significantly reduces the vignetting effect, resulting in more even illumination across the frame.

Some photographers even appreciate the subtle vignetting as a stylistic element, adding a vintage feel to their images.

It’s a characteristic, not necessarily a flaw.

Using the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm

This 28mm lens excels in street photography and landscapes, offering a unique perspective. Its manual focus requires practice, but delivers rewarding results.

It’s a versatile tool for creative image-making.

Ideal Photographic Applications

The Auto Toyo 28mm’s wide-angle perspective makes it exceptionally suited for capturing expansive scenes. Street photography benefits from its ability to include context and draw viewers into the environment.

Landscape photographers will appreciate the broad field of view, ideal for showcasing grand vistas. While less conventional, the lens can also be employed for portraiture, creating unique compositions with environmental storytelling.

Its manual focus encourages deliberate composition, fostering a more thoughtful approach to image creation, making it a versatile choice for diverse photographic pursuits.

Street Photography with a 28mm Lens

The Auto Toyo 28mm excels in street photography due to its ability to capture a wider scene, immersing the viewer in the environment. This focal length allows photographers to include compelling foreground elements and contextual details, enhancing narrative power.

Its compact size and manual focus promote discreet operation, crucial for candid shots. The lens encourages a more engaged approach, requiring deliberate framing and focusing, resulting in impactful and authentic street scenes.

The 28mm perspective offers a unique blend of intimacy and breadth, perfect for storytelling.

Landscape Photography Considerations

The Auto Toyo 28mm presents unique challenges and opportunities for landscape photography. While not a traditional landscape focal length, its wider perspective can emphasize foreground interest and create a sense of spaciousness.

Careful composition is key, as the lens can exaggerate perspective. Utilizing strong leading lines and incorporating a prominent foreground element will enhance depth.

The manual focus encourages deliberate framing, and the solid build is suitable for outdoor conditions, yielding compelling landscape images.

Portraiture with a Wide-Angle Lens

The Auto Toyo 28mm isn’t a conventional portrait lens, but creative photographers can achieve striking results. Its wide angle necessitates close proximity to the subject, creating a unique intimacy and emphasizing the surrounding environment.

Be mindful of potential distortion, particularly near the edges of the frame. Careful posing and focusing on the eyes are crucial.

This lens excels at environmental portraits, showcasing the subject within their context, offering a distinctive aesthetic.

Mounting and Adapting the Lens

The Auto Toyo 28mm natively mounts to Konica AR and Pentax PK cameras. Adapters enable use on modern digital bodies, expanding its versatility and photographic applications.

Konica AR Mount Cameras

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm is directly compatible with all Konica AR mount cameras, offering a seamless integration for classic film photography. This includes popular models like the Konica Autoreflex, Konica FS-1, and Konica T3.

Users report a secure and reliable connection, allowing for full manual control over aperture and focus. The lens’s robust build quality ensures a stable mount on these vintage Konica bodies.

When using with Konica AR cameras, photographers can fully utilize the lens’s optical capabilities and enjoy the unique character of this classic wide-angle prime.

Pentax PK Mount Cameras

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm also boasts compatibility with Pentax PK mount cameras, expanding its usability to a wider range of classic film SLRs. This includes models like the Pentax K1000, Pentax ME, and Pentax P30n.

While designed initially for Konica AR, its adaptability to Pentax PK offers enthusiasts more options. Users confirm a solid connection and full manual operation on these cameras.

Photographers appreciate the lens’s performance when paired with Pentax bodies, delivering sharp images and a classic aesthetic.

Adapting to Modern Digital Cameras

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm, despite its vintage, can be adapted for use on modern digital cameras via readily available adapters. These adapters, often featuring a PK to mirrorless mount, allow photographers to enjoy the lens’s unique character on contemporary systems.

Successful adaptation requires careful selection of a compatible adapter, ensuring proper fit and functionality. Users report excellent results with adapters on Sony E-mount and Fujifilm X-mount bodies.

However, remember that manual focus and aperture control are essential when using this lens digitally.

Condition and Collectibility

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm’s value depends heavily on its condition; serial number 800089 is noted. Good condition examples are desirable among collectors and film users.

Assess for haze, scratches, and smooth focus operation.

Assessing the Condition of a Used Lens

Evaluating an Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm requires careful inspection. Begin by checking the glass elements for scratches, haze, fungus, or separation. Rotate the aperture blades to ensure smooth operation without oil.

Examine the focus ring for smoothness and any play. The metal body should be free of significant dents or corrosion.

Confirm the Konica AR or Pentax PK mount is undamaged. A “strong construct satisfactory” condition is highly valued, indicating minimal wear and optimal performance.

Identifying Key Serial Numbers (e.g., 800089)

The serial number on the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm, such as 800089, is typically engraved on the lens barrel. This number can assist in determining the approximate production date, though precise records are scarce.

While not directly linked to specific features, tracking serial numbers helps collectors and enthusiasts document lens variations.

eBay listings frequently include the serial number for identification purposes, aiding in verifying authenticity and assessing the lens’s history.

Market Value and Rarity

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm isn’t exceedingly rare, but prices fluctuate based on condition and included accessories. Expect to find examples ranging from $50 to $150 on platforms like eBay.

Excellent condition lenses with original packaging command higher prices. The Konica AR mount versions may be slightly more valuable due to the decreasing availability of Konica cameras.

Overall, it represents a relatively affordable entry point into vintage wide-angle photography.

User Reviews and Experiences

User satisfaction with the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm is generally high, praising its robust build and satisfactory image quality for film photography.

Photographers consistently highlight the lens’s strong construction and performance.

General User Satisfaction

Overall, user satisfaction with the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm lens is remarkably positive, particularly among film photography enthusiasts. Many reviewers commend its solid, all-metal construction, noting a reassuringly robust feel.

The lens consistently receives praise for delivering sharp images, especially when stopped down slightly. Users appreciate its ability to produce pleasing results for street photography and landscapes. While a manual focus lens, it’s considered easy to operate and offers a tactile experience.

Despite its age, the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm continues to garner favorable feedback, proving its enduring appeal.

Reported Strengths of the Lens

Key strengths consistently highlighted by users of the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm include its robust build quality, featuring a solid metal construction that inspires confidence. The lens delivers commendable sharpness and resolution, particularly at smaller apertures.

Photographers appreciate the 25cm close focusing distance, enabling creative compositions. Its compact size and lightweight design contribute to comfortable handling. The multi-coated optics effectively minimize flare and ghosting, enhancing image clarity.

Many users also value its affordability and availability on the used market.

Potential Weaknesses and Limitations

Despite its strengths, the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm does exhibit some limitations. Users report noticeable vignetting, especially at wider apertures, requiring post-processing correction. Chromatic aberration can be present, particularly in high-contrast scenes, though generally manageable.

Being a manual focus lens, precise focusing demands practice and patience. The lack of autofocus may deter some modern photographers. While build quality is solid, older units may show signs of wear.

Finally, adapting to digital cameras requires compatible adapters.

Comparison with Contemporary Lenses

Compared to other 28mm primes of the era, the Auto Toyo Optics MC 1:2.8 28mm offers a compelling value proposition, balancing image quality with affordability.

It stands as a strong contender in today’s market.

Comparing to Other 28mm Primes of the Era

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm competed with notable 28mm lenses from manufacturers like Olympus and Pentax during the 1970s and 80s. While some contemporaries boasted faster apertures or more advanced coatings, the Toyo offered a robust build and respectable sharpness.

Many users found its image rendering pleasing, with a character distinct from the clinical precision of some German lenses.

Its multi-coating, while not the most modern, provided adequate flare control for the period, and its manual focus operation appealed to photographers seeking direct control over their images.

Value Proposition in Today’s Market

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm presents a compelling value for photographers exploring film or adapting vintage lenses to digital systems. Its affordability, often found on eBay, makes it an accessible entry point into classic lens experiences.

Despite its age, the lens delivers satisfying image quality, particularly for street and landscape photography.

The robust metal construction ensures durability, and its manual focus encourages deliberate shooting. It’s a cost-effective alternative to pricier modern lenses.

Maintenance and Care

Regular cleaning of the lens elements with appropriate solutions is crucial. Proper storage in a dry environment protects against fungus and ensures longevity for this classic lens.

Cleaning the Lens Elements

Maintaining the optical clarity of the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm requires gentle cleaning practices. Begin by using a blower to remove loose dust and debris from the lens surface.

Follow this with a soft, lint-free microfiber cloth lightly moistened with a lens cleaning solution specifically designed for coated optics.

Avoid harsh chemicals or abrasive materials, as these can damage the multi-coating.

Circular motions are best, working from the center outwards. For stubborn marks, consider a dedicated lens cleaning pen, but use it sparingly.

Regular preventative cleaning is key to preserving image quality.

Proper Storage Techniques

Protecting your Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm from environmental factors is crucial for longevity. Store the lens in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight and extreme temperatures.

A dedicated lens case or pouch is highly recommended to shield it from dust, moisture, and accidental impacts.

Silica gel desiccant packs within the case can absorb excess humidity, preventing fungus growth.

When not in use for extended periods, loosen the focus ring slightly to avoid potential sticking.

Avoid long-term storage in leather cases, as they can release harmful chemicals.

Resources and Further Information

Explore online lens databases like the Pentax Lens Review Database for specifications and reviews. eBay listings offer purchase options, while photography forums provide user experiences and insights.

Online Lens Databases (e.g., Pentax Lens Review Database)

Dedicated online resources, such as the Pentax Lens Review Database, provide valuable technical specifications and user-submitted reviews specifically for the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm f/2.8. These databases often detail the lens’s close focus capability of 25cm and its solid metal construction.

Researchers and enthusiasts can find detailed information regarding the lens’s performance characteristics, including reported strengths and potential limitations. These platforms serve as central hubs for collective knowledge, aiding in assessing the lens’s condition and market value.

Accessing these databases is crucial for understanding the lens’s historical context and its place within the broader landscape of vintage optics.

eBay Listings and Auction Sites

eBay and similar auction platforms are primary sources for locating Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm f/2.8 lenses. Listings frequently highlight compatibility with Konica AR and Pentax PK mount cameras, often noting the serial number, such as 800089.

Potential buyers can assess the lens’s condition through provided photographs and descriptions, paying attention to reported functionality and cosmetic wear. These sites offer a dynamic marketplace, reflecting current market values and rarity.

Careful examination of listings is essential for verifying authenticity and ensuring a satisfactory purchase.

Photography Forums and Communities

Online photography forums, like the Pentax Lens Review Database and Board is Very Busy, provide valuable insights into the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm. Users share experiences, reviews, and discuss the lens’s strengths – notably its solid construction and satisfactory performance.

These communities are excellent resources for troubleshooting, learning about adaptations to modern cameras, and gauging overall user satisfaction. Discussions often cover ideal applications, such as street and landscape photography.

Engaging with these forums offers a wealth of practical knowledge.

MTF Charts and Analysis

MTF data specifically for the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm is limited, however, understanding MTF charts helps assess sharpness and optical performance characteristics.

Analyzing available data reveals potential strengths and weaknesses.

Understanding MTF Charts

MTF (Modulation Transfer Technology) charts graphically represent a lens’s ability to resolve fine details across the image frame. Higher percentages indicate better sharpness. Charts display resolution at varying spatial frequencies, mimicking different detail levels.

Sagittal and Meridional lines show performance in two planes. MTF50, a common metric, indicates the spatial frequency at which contrast drops to 50%. Analyzing these charts for the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm, even with limited data, can provide insights into its resolving power and potential softness at certain apertures or image corners.

Available MTF Data for the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm

Comprehensive MTF data for the Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm is surprisingly scarce. Unlike modern lenses, detailed manufacturer specifications weren’t widely published. Pentax Lens Review Database offers user-submitted observations, suggesting good center sharpness even wide open.

However, formal MTF charts are largely absent. Users often rely on real-world testing and sample images to assess performance. While lacking precise figures, anecdotal evidence points to a lens capable of delivering pleasingly sharp results, particularly when stopped down slightly from its maximum aperture of f/2.8.

Legacy and Influence

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm, though from a smaller manufacturer, contributed to the era’s lens design. It continues to be favored by film photographers today, demonstrating lasting quality.

The Impact of Toyo Optics on Lens Design

Toyo Optics, while not as widely recognized as some contemporaries, played a significant role in the landscape of 1970s and 80s lens manufacturing. The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm exemplifies their commitment to producing high-quality optics at a competitive price point.

Their designs often prioritized robust build quality and sharp image rendition, characteristics appreciated by photographers then and now. Though information is limited, the lens demonstrates a focus on delivering practical performance, influencing subsequent lens development by showcasing attainable quality for enthusiasts.

The lens’s enduring appeal speaks to the effectiveness of their optical formulas and manufacturing processes.

Continued Use in Film Photography

The Auto Toyo Optics MC 28mm maintains a dedicated following within the film photography community. Its manual focus operation and solid metal construction appeal to photographers seeking a tactile and deliberate shooting experience.

The lens’s optical qualities, delivering sharpness and reasonable distortion control, make it well-suited for various film formats. Enthusiasts appreciate its affordability and availability on the used market, offering a vintage aesthetic and reliable performance.

It remains a practical and enjoyable lens for those committed to analog photography.

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This year, large majorities in both houses of Virginia’s General Assembly passed landmark legislation to extend equal collective bargaining rights to most public-sector workers. The Assembly’s collective bargaining bill proposed replacing Virginia’s Jim Crow-era ban on public employee collective bargaining with a new law affirming public-sector workers’ rights and creating a legal pathway to a union contract for those who choose to unionize. The Assembly bill was poised to put Virginia on a transformative path to narrowing one of the largest public-sector pay gaps in the nation and improving public education and services for all Virginians by reducing crisis-level shortages of educators, first responders, health care workers, corrections staff, and other frontline workers. Strengthening collective bargaining rights is also one of the most powerful policy levers states have available to confront primary economic challenges affecting all workers today: an affordability crisis driven by the failure of wages to keep pace with inflation, growing income inequality, and persistent racial and gender labor market disparities.

Once the Assembly’s bill reached her desk, Virginia Governor Abigail Spanberger had the opportunity to strengthen it or sign it into law. Instead, Governor Spanberger put forward her own heavily amended version of the bill last week, weakening the proposed collective bargaining framework so extensively that her version would lock Virginia into an unstable, ineffective system in which collective bargaining would remain merely “optional” and where employers and workers would remain perpetually uncertain about what rules might apply to them from year to year depending on what appointees of future governors might decide. The governor’s amended bill will now be considered by the Assembly in its one-day veto session this week. Below, we analyze some of the many substantive differences between the Assembly bill and the governor’s bill, as well as the likely economic impacts.

Virginia’s ability to reap economic benefits of collective bargaining will depend on strength of any new law 

EPI has previously analyzed the economic importance of strengthening collective bargaining rights in Virginia, where the state’s long-standing ban on public-sector collective bargaining has suppressed workers’ wages and union membership. Our most recent analysis showed that state and local government employees in Virginia earn, on average, 26.7% less than private-sector peers with similar education and experience. Virginia’s public-sector pay gap is the second highest in the nation while its public-sector unionization rate (at 14.1%) is the fourth lowest, outcomes that our 50-state data show are closely correlated with the strength or weakness of a state’s collective bargaining laws. Recent EPI research further shows that beyond helping states narrow public-sector pay gaps and improve conditions for directly affected workers and the public they serve, stronger collective bargaining laws are highly correlated with widely shared benefits including higher wages, more equitable state economies, and healthier democracies.

State public-sector collective bargaining laws are complex and highly variable. In our prior research, we grouped state laws into three categories based on assessment of whether collective bargaining is:

1) illegal: state law prohibits public employers and unionized workers from entering into collective bargaining agreements.

2) permitted: collective bargaining is “optional” insofar as it is allowed in certain jurisdictions but occurs only if both parties agree to engage in it; whether parties are required to negotiate over wages or other terms and conditions of work is not defined in state law.

3) required: once a group of workers has gone through the process of forming a legally certified union, employers have a “duty to bargain” over pay (at a minimum), and there is a specified process for both parties to follow in negotiating to reach agreements that result in a legally binding collective bargaining agreement.

Currently, Virginia’s collective bargaining law straddles the first two categories: collective bargaining is illegal for units of state government in Virginia, but the state has recently (since 2021) permitted local governments to enact their own collective bargaining systems.

As shown in Table 1, data show that average public-sector pay gaps vary across states depending on the strength of their collective bargaining laws. Virginia’s large public-sector pay gap is an extreme outlier, currently exceeding even the average among all states with the weakest laws (where collective bargaining is illegal).

Table 1 Governor’s bill deletes essential elements of a strong collective bargaining system

Virginia lawmakers now face a choice between two dramatically different visions for collective bargaining: an Assembly bill that would move Virginia into the stronger “required” category, and the governor’s substitute bill that would lock Virginia into the weaker “permitted” category.

The Assembly’s collective bargaining bill includes clear language recognizing the rights of public employees to choose whether to unionize; setting forth consistent rules, timelines, and processes for workers and employers to follow for union elections and contract negotiations; and establishing a new, independent state labor board to support and administer the new framework across all covered state and local jurisdictions. The Assembly bill also has limitations—for example, it falls short of equalizing rights of all public employees by excluding most higher education workers—but it does provide a clear, strong roadmap for implementing a robust, effective collective bargaining system modeled on proven best practices from other states to serve as a solid foundation for Virginia to build on.

The governor’s amended version of the bill weakens all these key elements of the statutory framework proposed by the Assembly and the proposed labor board’s role in enforcing a clear statutory framework. In many important sections of the bill, the governor’s amendments include changing the word “shall” to the word “may”—a critical change that converts entire sections of statutory rules and requirements into mere suggestions, rather than legally enforceable expectations applying equally to all workers and employers. Another repeated pattern throughout the governor’s bill is the deletion and replacement of a host of detailed statutory guidelines with directives that such guidelines should instead by “determined by the board” or that the board “shall adopt regulations” to answer critical questions about workers’ rights and employer obligations in the unionization and collective bargaining process.

Table 2 summarizes just a few of the key differences between the Assembly bill and the governor’s bill. The Assembly bill proposes a framework similar to those successfully implemented in many other states, including statutory language defining the topics parties are required to negotiate over, clear rules for union elections and negotiations procedures, and binding arbitration to ensure that negotiations will eventually conclude with a contract settlement. These standard elements are essential to a strong, effective collective bargaining system that enables workers to have an equal voice at the bargaining table—but the governor’s bill removes all of these elements.

Table 2

The stark contrast between the scope of bargaining as defined in the Assembly bill versus the governor’s bill is especially salient. The strength of any collective bargaining system depends on clear, consistent rules for which topics unions and employers must be willing to discuss in negotiations and which subjects must (or may) legally be incorporated into a collective bargaining agreement. When subjects of bargaining are “permitted” but not required, parties may try to pick and choose what to discuss, one party may refuse to negotiate over matters that are important to the other, and non-mandatory topics are generally not considered as part of arbitration procedures and often therefore never get included in final contracts. Alarmingly, the governor’s bill leaves the scope of bargaining completely undetermined, giving the labor board discretion to determine when and whether it is “appropriate” to require parties to negotiate even over topics as basic as wages.

This change alone would lead us to categorize the governor’s bill as a model for “permitting” (but not requiring) collective bargaining, making it unlikely to significantly narrow Virginia’s public-sector pay gap or achieve other important economic outcomes associated with stronger collective bargaining laws. As shown above in Table 1, workers in states where collective bargaining is “permitted” but not required continue to experience pay gaps far above average (and far greater than in most states with strong collective bargaining laws).

At a minimum, any collective bargaining legislation in Virginia should be measured against the status quo and whether it represents progress toward achieving full and equal collective bargaining for all workers. Here, the governor’s bill falls woefully short and could even represent a step backwards for some workers. At best, the governor’s bill would lock Virginia into a system where collective bargaining becomes “permitted” for more workers than are currently covered by local collective bargaining ordinances. At worst—depending on rules yet to be determined by a future labor board—the governor’s bill could erode existing rights of some local government workers who might find themselves in the future governed by weaker state collective bargaining procedures than those they’ve been able to win at the local level since 2021.

The governor’s bill includes additional significant changes too numerous to cover in detail here. Among other notable amendments that weaken the proposed framework for collective bargaining or its implementation, the governor’s bill:

• delays application of the new law to January 1, 2030, for local governments
• excludes Virginia Port Authority workers from coverage
• maintains exclusion of most higher education workers from coverage (including faculty, professional staff, researchers, graduate assistants, etc.) and specifies that this exclusion extends to health care workers at university hospitals and health care facilities

In the short term, the numerous exclusions, delays, and weaknesses introduced or expanded by the governor’s bill would leave Virginia workers with a limited patchwork of different rights covering different localities and occupations. In the long term, this would create permanent uncertainty about whether and when various rules covering particular groups of workers might be changed by the labor board.

It’s clear that the fight to ensure every employee in Virginia has a voice on the job has only just begun. Collective bargaining is a fundamental right, not intended to be left up to the whims of individual local elected officials or to-be-determined future members of a new state labor board. Collective bargaining is both a labor issue and a civil rights issue, as NAACP Virginia State Conference leaders recently pointed out. Nowhere is this clearer than in Virginia, where the denial of collective bargaining rights to generations of workers is directly rooted in a history of white supremacist backlash against Black worker organizing. Virginia lawmakers still have a chance to enact meaningful collective bargaining legislation in 2026, but doing so will first require rejecting the damaging amendments put forward by Governor Spanberger.

Voucher programs—which use public funds to finance private education—have been sweeping state and federal legislatures over the past few years. These bills are harmful to public schools, especially public schools in rural communities. Yet, this week, the “Keep Public Funds in Public Schools Act” was introduced in the Senate, which would repeal the national private school voucher program passed in the 2025 reconciliation bill, thereby protecting rural communities from these programs. Often framed as “school choice” programs, vouchers give parents the equivalent of per-pupil public school funding to send their child to any private or homeschool program they choose.

But diverting public funds away from public K–12 schools and toward private schools does not guarantee educational opportunities will be expanded for all students—and this is especially true in rural communities. Most obviously, because students in rural communities often don’t have a private school option and therefore cannot use the vouchers, state voucher programs—which are financed by all the taxpayers in a state—amount to an education subsidy for wealthy urban families at the expense of strong public schools. Moreover, for rural areas that can support multiple school systems, voucher programs introduce a potentially large cost for the students that remain in public schools, as any sharp drop in public school enrollment will raise the fixed cost per pupil of running schools. For example, school facilities and staff that are efficient for 1,000 students in a school may no longer be efficient if enrollment were to drop to 800 or 900.

Voucher programs work like this: Parents who wish to send their kid to private school can receive public funding to cover part of the tuition or education-related expenses, rather than paying out of pocket. In states with vouchers programs, this added cost to government of paying for private educational expenses makes a big dent in state budgets—see examples here, here, and here. These programs also often entail fraud and abuse of funds and strip away funding for public schools. As a share of K–12 budgets, voucher spending accounted for as much as 26% in 2025, squeezing public schools of sorely needed funds. Moreover, recent reports have documented accounts of voucher funding getting used for high-end concert tickets and rideshare apps like Uber and Lyft. For wealthy parents in urban districts who were already planning to send their kids to private school, these slippery regulations and extra funding for education expenses are a feature, not a bug, of voucher programs. Vouchers are disproportionately taken up by students already attending private school, compared with those who consider a private school option when voucher laws get passed in their state.

For students in rural areas with no private school option, voucher programs simply mean there is less to spend on public schools, which leads to teacher shortages, fewer educational opportunities, and worse building maintenance. In rural communities with homeschooling or private school options, voucher programs impose an added cost to public education when students transition from public to private school.

We call this cost the fiscal externality of voucher programs, and it is borne by school districts, students, and their families when voucher-driven declines in student enrollment intersect with the fixed nature of many school costs. In rural districts, many key education costs—such as interest on bonds issued in the past, heating, electricity for school buildings, bus drivers, and even some staff—cannot easily adjust to student enrollment declines.

While public schools’ fixed costs do not decline when they lose students to voucher programs, their revenue does. Thus, when students in rural areas take up vouchers to leave public school for private school or homeschool, public schools have less revenue to cover the same level of fixed costs. The costs that can be adjusted—such as supplies or certain personnel—will get forced down due to shrinking school budgets. These variable costs are crucial for effectively educating children, meaning students who remain in public schools will pay the price of voucher program takeup.

This fiscal externality therefore leaves districts unable to deliver the same level of instruction to the remaining public school pupils. When students leave public schools in rural areas with voucher programs, there are fewer resources available on a daily basis to educate kids—fewer teachers and other staff members and fewer curriculum and education supplies. Education quality suffers.

How large is the fiscal externality that voucher programs impose on public schools in rural districts? Take the McComb Local School District in Ohio, which had 627 students in 2022 and is classified as a rural district according to the U.S. Census. Using EPI’s Fiscal Externality Calculator, we estimate that a 5% decline in enrollment would lead to an increased cost of $520 per pupil for the remaining students in the district, or a total of $309,530.

The key assumption is that there is some fraction of schools’ costs that is fixed and can’t be adjusted in the near term when enrollment falls. We assume that instruction and services costs (the cost of teachers and services like transportation, counseling, nurses, and school administrators) can only partially adjust to changes in enrollment. Specifically, we assume that when enrollment declines, instruction costs are only able to adjust by 50% of the enrollment decline, and service costs are only able to adjust by 20%. We assume that capital and building and maintenance costs can’t be adjusted at all. (Users can set their own adjustment rates for their school districts using the fiscal externality calculator here. The method behind this calculation is detailed in our report.)

Under these assumptions, aggregating all the rural Ohio districts using the rural categorization of school districts from the National Center for Education Statistics, a voucher-driven 5% enrollment decline would impose a fiscal externality of just over $206 million on Ohio public schools.

Rural districts have the most to lose when states enact voucher programs. For rural communities, vouchers are not a cost-free policy that simply expands education options for children—they are a subsidy for wealthy urban and suburban families at the expense of strong public schools. Voucher programs also introduce a large potential cost for the students that remain in rural public schools. The public spending declines associated with the introduction of vouchers will reliably cause significantly worse educational outcomes at a time when states should be spending more—not less—on public schools. States that promote voucher programs at the expense of funding for strong public education are signaling that rural students are not a priority.